Plant-Based Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering: Structure-Function, Processing, and Clinical Outlook-A Review

The escalating demand for functional tissue-engineered constructs has highlighted the critical need for scaffolds that are not only biocompatible but also cost-effective and scalable, qualities that are often lacking in traditional synthetic or animal-derived materials. Driven by this necessity, plant-derived biomaterials have emerged as promising candidates due to their natural abundance and structurally versatile architecture. Primarily composed of cellulose-rich extracellular matrices, hemicellulose, lignin, and pectin, these materials provide physicochemical properties that can be tailored to emulate specific tissue microenvironments. Notably, native plant vasculature contains intrinsic microchannels that facilitate perfusion, making them uniquely advantageous for cell infiltration and angiogenesis. This review aims to synthesize current progress in plant-based scaffolds for tissue engineering, with emphasis on structure-function relationships, processing strategies, and translational readiness. We outline key biofabrication workflows centered on decellularization and preservation of ultrastructure, followed by recellularization approaches and considerations of degradation behavior and mechanical stability. This review also summarizes mechanistic foundations of regeneration, including cell-material interactions, hierarchical microarchitecture, and contributions of intrinsic or incorporated bioactive constituents. Finally, we discuss therapeutic applications across soft and hard tissues and highlight performance enhancement strategies. Importantly, it is worth noting that the current evidence base remains strictly preclinical, with no human clinical trials reported to date. Significant challenges persist, including incomplete decellularization, limited long-term mechanical stability under physiological loading, and the lack of standardized manufacturing protocols. Overall, plant-based scaffolds represent a maturing and sustainable platform with strong potential for future regenerative strategies, contingent upon rigorous standardization and comprehensive safety evaluation.