Recent advances and challenges of analytical methods for detection of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals widely used for domestic and industrial purposes. Because PFAS are highly persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic, they pose potential threats to the environment and human health. This review provides a comprehensive overview of PFAS occurrence and monitoring across diverse environmental and biological matrices, as well as their toxicological impacts on soil microbiota, plants, animals, and humans. Advancements and limitations of PFAS analytical techniques such as liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, supercritical fluid chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and high-resolution mass spectrometry are evaluated. Moreover, we explore the emerging integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning approaches in PFAS detection, classification, and toxicity prediction. These data-driven methods offer promising solutions to overcome existing analytical challenges, such as high costs, complex sample preparation, and long analysis time.