Advances in esophageal organoids: from construction to applications

Esophageal organoids are self-assembled 3D microtissues derived from pluripotent or adult stem cells. They accurately recapitulate the cellular composition, tissue arrangement, and functional properties of the native esophagus. Emerging as powerful tools in disease research, they overcome key limitations of 2D cultures and animal models, such as poor microenvironmental simulation, species differences, and ethical concerns. Based on literature published in the past decades, this review summarizes recent advances in esophageal organoid construction, characterization, and applications in developmental biology, disease modeling, drug screening, and regenerative medicine. The current challenges, such as standardizing culture procedures, genetic instability, and microenvironmental complexity, are critically analyzed. We also highlight innovations such as microfluidic integration and high-throughput automation that improve model fidelity (accuracy and reliability) and support clinical translation. Future interdisciplinary efforts are expected to expand the role of esophageal organoids in precision medicine, enabling personalized diagnosis and therapy for esophageal disorders.