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Imperfections in Crystal Structure: Stoichiometric Point Defects01:26

Imperfections in Crystal Structure: Stoichiometric Point Defects

Schottky defects arise when some lattice points in a crystal, such as those in NaCl, remain unoccupied, creating lattice vacancies without disturbing the overall electrical neutrality of the crystal. This defect is common in ionic crystals where the positive and negative ions are similar in size, as seen in sodium chloride and cesium chloride. The presence of Schottky defects enables the crystal to conduct electricity to a small extent through an ionic mechanism. Electric fields cause nearby...

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Related Experiment Video

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X-ray Dose Reduction through Adaptive Exposure in Fluoroscopic Imaging
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Eye Lens Radiation Exposure During TAVI: Current Evidence and Imaging-Based Strategies for Dose Reduction.

Chiara Zanon1, Alessandro Fiocco2, Vincenzo Tarzia2

  • 1Department of Radiology, University of Padua, Via Giustiniani 2, 35128 Padua, Italy.

Tomography (Ann Arbor, Mich.)
|March 27, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Occupational eye lens exposure during transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) is significant, with doses potentially reaching regulatory limits. Implementing imaging optimization and protective measures is crucial for reducing radiation risks for healthcare professionals.

Keywords:
TAVIcataractdosimetryeye lens dosefluoroscopyimaging optimizationoccupational radiationshieldingstructural heart interventionstranscatheter aortic valve implantation

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Area of Science:

  • Interventional Cardiology
  • Medical Radiation Physics
  • Occupational Health

Background:

  • Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) is increasingly performed in high-fluoroscopy environments.
  • Concerns exist regarding occupational eye lens dose (Hp (3)) and radiation-induced cataract risk, especially with reduced dose limits.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review evidence on eye lens radiation exposure during TAVI.
  • Identify procedural and occupational factors influencing exposure.
  • Summarize strategies for dose reduction, focusing on imaging optimization.

Main Methods:

  • Narrative review of observational and prospective studies.
  • Included studies with direct eye-level dose measurements or validated surrogates.
  • Focused on TAVI and related structural heart procedures for qualitative synthesis.

Main Results:

  • Operator eye lens doses ranged from 30 to 110 µSv per procedure.
  • Higher doses observed with transapical/transaortal access and for staff near the patient.
  • Shielding and lead-free drapes reduced normalized eye dose by 25-40%; RADPAD use decreased dose from 24.3 to 14.8 µSv.

Conclusions:

  • Occupational eye lens exposure in TAVI is clinically relevant, influenced by access route, staff position, and imaging system use.
  • Dose reduction requires combining eye protection, dosimetry, and imaging optimization.
  • Imaging optimization includes low pulse-rate fluoroscopy, minimized DSA/cine, tight collimation, and proper shield positioning.