Deep Learning Enables Pixel-Level Nanoparticle Distribution Mapping in Routine Histological Sections by Integrating...

The efficient accumulation and uniform distribution of nanomedicine within tumors are critical for achieving therapeutic outcomes. However, conventional medical imaging technologies struggle to efficiently and accurately detect nanoparticles (NPs) distribution, especially in resolving their cellular-level spatial heterogeneity. Existing deep-learning-based predictive models focus on tumor cell density and vascular distribution but do not address the complex spatial relationship between cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and drug distribution. This study presents NanoNet, a deep-learning framework that leverages fibroblast activation protein (FAP) immunostaining to spatially characterize CAFs and predict NPs distribution at high resolution. NanoNet achieved high predictive accuracy (ICC = 0.963, R² = 0.9849) by transforming tumor section images into pixel-level NPs distribution maps. The FAP channel contributed substantially to predictive accuracy, indicating its important role in guiding NPs behavior. This study provides a spatially resolved predictive framework that enables pixel-level predictions of NPs distribution from conventional histological sections, with potential applications for optimizing nanomedicine design and personalized nanomedicine.