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Related Concept Videos

Brainstem01:19

Brainstem

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The brainstem, located inferior to the brain and superior to the spinal cord, serves as a bridge between the cerebrum and the spinal cord. It plays a vital role in relaying information and controlling critical life functions. It comprises three primary regions: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
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The midbrain is located beneath the diencephalon and connects the cerebrum with the lower parts of the brain. The cerebral peduncles are prominent midbrain structures that house the...
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Brainstem: Control Centers of Medulla01:21

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The medulla oblongata is a crucial part of the brainstem responsible for controlling various autonomic and involuntary functions. It contains several nuclei, including the olivary, cuneate, gracile, and solitary nuclei.
Olivary Nucleus
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Nervous tissue is a vital component of the human body's communication system, enabling us to perceive and respond to stimuli. However, like all other tissues, it is vulnerable to disorders and diseases that can significantly impact our neurological functioning.
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Neurodegenerative disorders are progressive diseases that cause irreversible damage and loss to neurons in specific brain areas. Examples of these disorders include Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Multiple Sclerosis (MS), and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). These disorders share characteristics such as proteinopathies, selective neuronal vulnerability, and a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. The primary therapeutic goal for these conditions is...
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Neural Regulation01:37

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Digestion begins with a cephalic phase that prepares the digestive system to receive food. When our brain processes visual or olfactory information about food, it triggers impulses in the cranial nerves innervating the salivary glands and stomach to prepare for food.
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The cerebellum, also known as the "little brain," is located in the posterior cranial fossa, inferior to the tentorium cerebelli and dorsal to the brainstem. It plays a significant role in motor control, coordination, and proprioception.
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Updated: Mar 29, 2026

A Fine Motor Task to Study Joint Kinematics in a Preclinical Model of Neurodegenerative Disease
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The brainstem in neurodegenerative diseases.

Lea Tenenholz Grinberg1

  • 1Departments of Laboratory Medicine, Pathology and Neurosciences, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States.

Handbook of Clinical Neurology
|March 27, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) involve the brainstem early, often before the cortex. Understanding brainstem pathology and its chronology offers new targets for early intervention in NDDs.

Keywords:
BrainstemClinicopathologic correlationsNeurodegenerative diseasesNeuropathologyProtein aggregation

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Neuropathology
  • Clinical Neurology

Background:

  • Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) research historically focused on the cerebral cortex.
  • Emerging evidence highlights the brainstem's critical role in NDDs, with pathology often preceding cortical changes.
  • The brainstem's involvement is crucial for understanding NDDs' clinical manifestations.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review brainstem pathology and clinicopathologic correlations in major NDDs.
  • To emphasize the chronology of brainstem involvement in disease progression.
  • To explore mechanisms and clinical correlations of brainstem pathology in NDDs.

Main Methods:

  • Review of neuropathologic evidence in major NDDs.
  • Analysis of the chronology of disease progression focusing on the brainstem.
  • Exploration of underlying mechanisms like protein misfolding and neurotransmitter dysfunction.
  • Correlation of brainstem pathology with clinical phenotypes and prodromal symptoms.

Main Results:

  • Early brainstem pathology is common in NDDs and can precede cortical involvement.
  • Specific brainstem nuclei are selectively vulnerable in different NDDs.
  • Brainstem dysfunction contributes to key NDD symptoms like autonomic dysfunction, sleep disturbances, and mood disorders.
  • Understanding brainstem involvement refines NDD phenotypes and disease staging.

Conclusions:

  • The brainstem plays a pivotal role in the early stages and progression of NDDs.
  • Recognizing the brainstem's pathology and chronological involvement offers insights into NDDs.
  • Targeting early brainstem changes presents opportunities for novel therapeutic interventions in NDDs.