Establishment and Maintenance of Repressed Chromatin States on Dosage-Compensated Sex Chromosomes

Sex chromosome imbalance is a genetic challenge in species with unequal X-chromosome numbers. Organisms have developed distinct strategies to control this imbalance through a process called dosage compensation. These strategies include X-chromosome inactivation in mammals mediated by the XIST long noncoding RNA and proteins recruited by XIST, and X-linked hypertranscription in male Drosophila driven by the Male-Specific Lethal (MSL) complex. In Caenorhabditis elegans, gene expression is downregulated from each of the two X chromosomes of hermaphrodites by half, thereby matching the levels in XO males. This is mediated by a specialized condensin-containing protein complex, the Dosage Compensation Complex (DCC). In all cases, the chromatin states on the sex chromosomes must be first established and then maintained for the entire lifetime of the organism. Although mammals and nematodes both use repression to achieve dosage compensation, the mechanisms are very different. Here, we summarize recent advances on how repressive chromatin states are established and maintained, with a focus on contrasting C. elegans dosage compensation to XIST-mediated X-chromosome inactivation. We review how specialized chromosome topology, repressive chromatin modifications, and higher-order nuclear architecture are established and maintained to achieve sex-specific regulation of the X chromosomes and highlight key outstanding questions and future research directions.