Targeting Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Diabetic Neuropathy: Mechanisms and Therapeutic...

Diabetic neuropathy is a frequent and disabling complication of diabetes, encompassing distal symmetric polyneuropathy and cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy, both associated with reduced quality of life and increased cardiovascular risk. Beyond its traditional interpretation as a direct consequence of chronic hyperglycaemia, oxidative stress has emerged as a central integrative mechanism linking metabolic overload, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and microvascular injury to progressive neural damage. These processes converge within the neurovascular unit, promoting a self-perpetuating cycle of axonal degeneration, impaired nerve perfusion and altered neuronal excitability. This narrative review synthesises experimental and clinical evidence on oxidative stress-related pathways implicated in diabetic neuropathy, including hyperglycaemia-activated metabolic routes, mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and chronic inflammatory signalling. Classical antioxidant and mitochondrial-supportive interventions are evaluated alongside pleiotropic glucose-lowering agents, with particular emphasis on sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, integrating mechanistic insights with biomarker and clinical outcome data. Conventional antioxidant strategies, such as α-lipoic acid, acetyl-L-carnitine, coenzyme Q10 and N-acetylcysteine, show reproducible benefits on neuropathic symptoms and oxidative stress markers, but evidence for sustained structural or disease-modifying effects remains limited. In contrast, incretin-based therapies and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors exert broader pleiotropic actions by attenuating oxidative and inflammatory signalling, improving mitochondrial homeostasis and endothelial function, with emerging evidence for modest but consistent neurophysiological and autonomic benefits. Overall, oxidative stress emerges as a key mechanistic hub in diabetic neuropathy. Future progress will depend on mechanism-aligned, neuropathy-specific clinical trials incorporating multidimensional endpoints and validated biomarkers.