Impact of Nutrition on Embryo Production in Cattle: Mechanistic Insights

Reproductive efficiency in cattle is critically dependent on embryo quantity and quality, particularly in assisted reproductive technology (ART) programs such as superovulation, embryo transfer, and embryo production. Nutrition is a key determinant of embryo yield through its regulatory effects on metabolic signaling, ovarian function, oocyte competence, and early embryogenesis. This review synthesizes the current evidence describing mechanistic links between nutritional status and embryo production in dairy and beef cattle across both in vivo and in vitro systems. Energy balance, protein supply, micronutrients, and fatty acids influence metabolic hormones including insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1, and leptin, which regulate hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis activity, follicular recruitment, and steroidogenesis. Negative energy balance disrupts endocrine signaling, elevates circulating non-esterified fatty acids, increases oxidative stress, and impairs oocyte mitochondrial function, resulting in reduced embryo yield, compromised blastocyst quality, and diminished cryotolerance. Targeted micronutrients such as selenium, zinc, vitamins A and E, B-complex vitamins, and omega-3 fatty acids enhance antioxidant capacity, membrane integrity, and epigenetic regulation, thereby supporting embryo viability and post-transfer survival. Furthermore, early-life nutrition programs long-term reproductive capacity by influencing ovarian reserve establishment and oocyte epigenetic competence. Strategic nutritional management is therefore essential to optimize ART outcomes and promote sustainable genetic progress in cattle production systems.