Biomolecular condensates: Dynamic organizers from cell physiology to engineered applications

Phase separation (PS) has emerged as a fundamental biophysical process that organizes essential cellular processes through the formation of biomolecular condensates. These dynamic membrane-less assemblies reversibly form and dissolve in response to environmental and physiological stimuli, including changes in concentration, pH, temperature, or light. Such responsiveness makes biomolecular condensates highly attractive platforms for engineering applications, including drug delivery, biosensing, stimuli-responsive nanomedicine, and gene or protein transfection. Physiological cues induce phase separation that selectively partitions biomolecules into dense phases increasing the local concentrations leading to enhanced catalytic effects. This concentration-driven organization is particularly advantageous for enzymatic systems, where condensate formation has been shown to accelerate reaction kinetics by several fold. In this review we discuss how insights from cellular condensates are being translated into engineered systems, with emerging applications in biocatalysis, drug delivery, and related biomedical applications.