LC-MS/MS profiling and cytotoxic and antioxidant evaluation of sandarac gum resin extracts

Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Masters (Cupressaceae) is a coniferous species native to the Mediterranean and North African regions. Its resin, commonly known as sandarac, has a longstanding history of ethnomedicinal use for treating respiratory disorders, wound healing, and ritual practices. Despite its traditional significance, comprehensive pharmacological and toxicological evaluations of its chemical constituents and safety profile remain limited. This study aimed to assess the general toxicity of sandarac resin methanolic extract (SRME) using the Artemia salina L. lethality bioassay, alongside detailed phytochemical profiling through qualitative screening and LC-MS/MS analysis. The antioxidant activity of SRME was assessed using the DPPH• radical scavenging method, while its total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was determined using the phosphomolybdenum assay. The total phenolic content (TPC) of SRME was determined using a modified Folin-Ciocalteu colorimetric method. Phytochemical screening confirmed the presence of phenolics and flavonoids, whereas alkaloids, tannins, and saponins were absent. LC-MS/MS analysis identified key phenolic acids, including caffeic acid (1222 mg/kg) and gallic acid (26.44 mg/kg), as well as other constituents such as cinnamic acid, rutin, and myricetin. Although SRME contained diverse bioactive compounds, the DPPH• and TAC assays demonstrated very limited antioxidant activity, with statistically significant DPPH• radical scavenging observed only at 25 µg/mL (4.32%), while no total antioxidant capacity was detected at any concentration. In contrast, ascorbic acid exhibited strong antioxidant activity, reaching 67.28% and 52.10% in the DPPH• and TAC assays, respectively. Toxicity assays demonstrated a dose- and time-dependent increase in A. salina larval mortality, particularly at high concentrations, suggesting potential toxic effects at supra-traditional doses. These findings indicate that SRME is relatively safe at traditional usage levels, while higher concentrations may pose risks. Further studies isolating active constituents and elucidating toxicodynamic mechanisms are warranted to inform the safe pharmacological application of T. articulata resin.