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Related Concept Videos

Precipitation Processes01:12

Precipitation Processes

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The experimental conditions in a gravimetric analysis should be optimized to maximize the particle size and purity of the obtained precipitate. Ideally, the concentration of the precipitating reagent should be low with effective stirring to maintain low relative supersaturation for the growth of large crystals. In homogeneous precipitation, the precipitant is slowly generated by a chemical reaction in the solution to avoid local reagent excesses. For example, urea decomposes gradually to...
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Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation02:39

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

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The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize (convert into vapor). The process is called vaporization—a surface phenomenon. Vaporization occurs when the thermal motion of the molecules overcome the intermolecular forces, and the molecules (at the surface) escape into the gaseous state. When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules...
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Precipitation and Co-precipitation01:17

Precipitation and Co-precipitation

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Precipitation and coprecipitation methods can be used to separate a mixture of ions in a solution. In qualitative inorganic analysis, ions that form sparingly soluble precipitates with the same reagent are separated based on the differences in solubility products. For example, consider the separation of Cu(II) and Fe(II) ions by precipitation as insoluble sulfides. First, copper(II) sulfide is precipitated by the addition of acidic H2S, where the dissociation of H2S is suppressed. Adding H2S...
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Types of Coprecipitation01:10

Types of Coprecipitation

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Coprecipitation is the contamination of a precipitate by otherwise soluble species and occurs via different processes. In colloidal precipitates, coprecipitation occurs via surface adsorption. For instance, barium sulfate has a primary layer of adsorbed barium ions and a secondary layer of nitrate counterions. This results in contamination of the precipitate by barium nitrate.
Sometimes, ions in a crystal lattice can undergo isomorphous replacement by inclusions of similar charge and size. For...
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What is Climate?01:16

What is Climate?

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Climate refers to the prevailing weather conditions in a specific area over an extended period. As the saying goes, “Climate is what you expect. Weather is what you get.” Climate is influenced by geographic factors, such as latitude, terrain, and proximity to bodies of water.
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Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition02:33

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

20.9K
Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and standard pressure, a piece of dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, appearing to gradually disappear without ever forming any liquid. Snow and ice sublimate at temperatures below the melting point of water, a slow process that may be accelerated by winds and the reduced atmospheric pressures at high altitudes. When solid iodine is warmed, the solid sublimes...
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Large discrepancies in dominant microphysical processes governing mixed-phase clouds across climate models.

Hannah C Frostenberg1, Montserrat Costa-Surós2, Paraskevi Georgakaki3,4

  • 1Department of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.

NPJ Climate and Atmospheric Science
|March 30, 2026
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Summary

Climate models struggle with cloud ice and liquid balance. Primary ice nucleation (PIN) is key in some regions, but models differ on other ice processes, impacting climate predictions.

Keywords:
Climate sciencesPlanetary science

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Area of Science:

  • Atmospheric Science
  • Climate Modeling
  • Cloud Microphysics

Background:

  • The supercooled liquid fraction (SLF) in mixed-phase clouds is crucial for climate but challenging to model.
  • Uncertainties in ice-related microphysical processes significantly impact cloud phase simulations.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the relative importance of four key microphysical processes on SLF in mixed-phase clouds.
  • To compare model responses to primary ice nucleation (PIN) and secondary ice production (SIP) parameterizations across different climate models.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized three global climate models: EC-Earth3-AerChem, NorESM2-MM, and ECHAM6.3-HAM2.3.
  • Analyzed the influence of primary ice nucleation (PIN), secondary ice production (SIP), sedimentation, and ice crystal transport on SLF.
  • Implemented a unified SIP parameterization to assess model-specific interactions.

Main Results:

  • All models identified PIN as the dominant factor influencing SLF at cold, high northern latitudes.
  • Significant model divergence was observed in other regions and at higher temperatures.
  • Varied model responses to SIP parameterization highlighted fundamental differences in microphysical process interactions.

Conclusions:

  • Model agreement on PIN's dominance is limited to specific conditions.
  • Discrepancies in model responses to SIP and other processes indicate differing priorities in cloud phase representation.
  • The divergence among models may limit the reliability of conclusions drawn from single-model studies on cloud microphysics.