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Determination

Determination

During embryogenesis, cells become progressively committed to different fates through a two-step process: specification followed by determination. Specification is demonstrated by removing a segment of an early embryo, “neutrally” culturing the tissue in vitro—for example, in a petri dish with simple medium—and then observing the derivatives. If the cultured region gives rise to cell types that it would normally generate in the embryo, this means that it is specified. In contrast, determination...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 21, 2026

Protocol for the Differentiation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells into Mixed Cultures of Neurons and Glia for Neurotoxicity Testing

Protocol for the Differentiation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells into Mixed Cultures of Neurons and Glia for Neurotoxicity Testing

Published on: June 9, 2017

Temporal neuronal differentiation programs safeguard neuronal diversity.

Dan Shen¹, Jingyi Chu¹, Xiaolin Zhou²

¹State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

|March 30, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Distinct neuronal differentiation programs exist in the early and late-born central brain neurons of fruit flies. T cell factor (TCF) and Odd-paired (Opa)/Zic are key to the early program, preventing neuronal dedifferentiation.

Keywords:

Drosophila melanogaster dedifferentiation neuronal differentiation neuronal diversity temporal transcription factors

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Last Updated: Jun 21, 2026

Protocol for the Differentiation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells into Mixed Cultures of Neurons and Glia for Neurotoxicity Testing

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Published on: June 9, 2017

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Neuronal Differentiation from Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells In vitro

Neuronal Differentiation from Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells In vitro

Published on: June 2, 2020

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Developmental Biology
Genetics

Background:

Neuronal differentiation programs establish terminally differentiated states.
Mechanisms governing differentiation in distinct neuronal lineages are not fully understood.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the existence and nature of distinct neuronal differentiation programs in the *Drosophila* central brain.
To identify key molecular players in early-born neuronal differentiation.

Main Methods:

Comparative analysis of neuronal differentiation factor expression in early-born vs. late-born neurons.
Identification of transcription factors involved in early neuronal differentiation.
Molecular analysis of T cell factor (TCF) function and its interaction with Odd-paired (Opa)/Zic.

Main Results:

Previously known differentiation factors are specifically expressed in late-born, not early-born, central brain neurons, suggesting a distinct early program.
T cell factor (TCF) and Odd-paired (Opa)/Zic were identified as components of the early differentiation program.
TCF, in a Wnt-independent manner with Opa, promotes neuronal differentiation and restricts Chinmo expression, preventing dedifferentiation.

Conclusions:

Distinct neuronal differentiation programs operate in early-born versus late-born *Drosophila* central brain neurons.
Temporal differentiation programs safeguard neuronal identity specification.
This temporal regulation mechanism may be conserved in mammalian brain development.