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Association between maternal bonding difficulty and neurodevelopmental delay in children aged 2 to 4 years: the Japan

Toshie Nishigori1,2, Hidekazu Nishigori1,3, Akiko Sato1

  • 1https://ror.org/012eh0r35Fukushima Regional Center for the Japan Environment and Children's Study, Fukushima, Japan.

Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease
|March 31, 2026
PubMed

Insights

Maternal bonding difficulty postpartum is linked to neurodevelopmental delays in young children, especially boys. This association persists longer in boys than in girls, particularly for problem-solving skills.

Area of Science:

  • Child Development
  • Maternal Mental Health
  • Neuroscience

Background:

  • Postpartum maternal bonding difficulty can impact child development.
  • Maternal psychological distress may influence this relationship.
  • Sex-specific differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes are observed.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the association between postpartum maternal bonding difficulty and children's neurodevelopment.
  • To examine the role of maternal psychological distress in this association.
  • To explore sex-specific differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized data from the Japan Environment and Children's Study (n=48,823).
  • Assessed maternal bonding using the Mother-to-Infant Bonding Scale (MIBS) and psychological distress with the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6) at 1 year postpartum.
  • Evaluated child neurodevelopment via Ages and Stages Questionnaires Third Edition at ages 2 and 4 years.

Main Results:

  • Maternal bonding difficulty without maternal psychological distress was linked to neurodevelopmental delays in boys across all five assessed domains (communication, gross motor, fine motor, problem-solving, personal-social) at ages 2-4 years.
  • In girls, this association was observed in all five domains at age 2 years.
  • By age 4 years, the association between maternal bonding difficulty and problem-solving delay was no longer significant in girls, but persisted in boys.

Conclusions:

  • Postpartum maternal bonding difficulty, independent of maternal psychological distress, is a significant risk factor for neurodevelopmental delays in early childhood.
  • The impact of maternal bonding difficulty on neurodevelopment exhibits sex-specific trajectories, with boys showing a more persistent association.
  • Early identification and support for maternal bonding are crucial for promoting optimal child neurodevelopment.

Keywords:
childrenmaternal bondingneurodevelopmental delaypsychological distress

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