Skeletal muscle tissue engineering using magnetic nanoparticles: a comprehensive review

Skeletal muscle tissue engineering (SMTE) is a promising tissue therapy that can innovatively address the challenges arising from trauma, diseases, or congenital disabilities. Advances in bioengineering have established multifaceted paradigms for SMTE, wherein magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have emerged as dynamic bioactive therapeutic agents. Owing to their magnetic properties, versatile surface modification, and interactions with biological systems, MNPs show significant promise when combined with cell and tissue therapies. This review aims to study the importance of MNPs in SMTE with emphasis on scaffold transplantation, bioactive agent delivery, myogenic differentiation, and remote mechanical stimulation. It highlights the predominant types of MNPs employed, including iron oxide-based nanomaterials and their fabrication, modification, and biocompatibility. Moreover, steady progress in the area of scaffolding, such as electromagnetic-driven scaffolding, advanced magneto-mechanical stimulation techniques, and the synergistic application of MNPs with other smart materials, is emphasised. This review underscores issues related to dosage, cytotoxicity, and in vivo translation and proposes further research steps to fully harness the therapeutic potential of MNPs for skeletal muscle functional regeneration. This paves the way for the engineering of smart, magnetoresponsive systems for clinically viable muscle repair strategies.