Advances in Nanostructured Electrodes for Next-Generation Bioelectronic Interfaces

Nanostructured electrodes (NSEs) have emerged as pivotal components in the development of advanced bioelectronic bidirectional interfaces, enabling precise sensing and stimulation in neural, muscular, and cardiac systems. Their unique physicochemical properties such as high surface area, tuneable conductivity, and mechanical compliance, allow seamless integration with biological tissues, offering enhanced signal fidelity and reduced impedance. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the latest materials and design strategies employed in fabricating NSEs, including carbon-based nanomaterials, metallic nanostructures, and conductive polymers. Emphasis is placed on the application of such bioelectronic interfaces for neural interfacing, cardiac mapping and pacing, muscle stimulation, and organ-on-chip modelling devices. Furthermore, critical challenges related to biocompatibility, mechanical durability, and long-term functionality of the interfaces are addressed, and the emerging trends in the development of soft, wireless, and adaptive electrode systems that promise to redefine clinical neuro-engineering and personalized medicine are presented. By synthesizing the current advancements, limitations, and future directions that drive research and development at the interjunction of NSEs and bidirectional bio-interfaces, this review serves as a foundational resource for researchers developing the next generation of intelligent, minimally invasive, and multifunctional bio-interfaces.