Drivers of body condition in South American sea lion pups along a latitudinal gradient

Body condition is a key proxy of fitness in pinnipeds, reflecting nutritional status and maternal investment. In the South American sea lion (Otaria flavescens), pup growth and survival depend on maternal foraging success, making pup condition a sensitive indicator of local environments. We quantified spatial and interannual variation in pup body condition across five Chilean breeding colonies spanning 21-53°S during the austral summers of 2024 and 2025. We captured 157 live pups (95 males, 62 females), measured morphometrics and calculated a body condition index (BCI = mass/length). To account for seasonal effects, BCI values were standardized to allow comparisons across sites and years. We tested the effects of sex, year, locality and satellite-derived net primary productivity (NPP). Male pups consistently showed higher standardized BCI than females. Locality was the strongest predictor: Isla Marta (southern limit) exhibited significantly higher values than all other sites, followed by Isla Metalqui. Cobquecura, Isla Choros and Punta Lobos showed lower or intermediate values. Year alone had no effect, but a significant locality × year interaction indicated interannual variability in northern colonies, particularly Punta Lobos. NPP was not retained in top-ranked models, suggesting broad-scale productivity does not directly predict pup condition at this resolution. The pronounced latitudinal gradient, with larger, better-conditioned pups at higher latitudes, is consistent with expectations under Bergmann's rule, which refers to the tendency of animals to be larger in colder climates and smaller in warmer ones. These results underscore the combined influence of local ecological conditions, maternal effects and intrinsic sex differences on pup condition and reinforce the value of South American sea lion pups as sentinels of ecosystem variability along the Chilean coast.