Cellular redox disruption and apoptosis: Differential effects of RFR frequencies on Leydig cells

Radiofrequency radiation (RFR), widely emitted from modern wireless devices, has raised questions regarding its possible impact on male reproductive health. In this comparative study, we examined the redox and apoptotic responses of TM3 Leydig cells following exposure to mobile phone radiation, as well as 2450 MHz, and 1800 MHz frequencies for 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 & 120 min, and redox imbalance was assessed by quantifying nitric oxide (NO) and intracellular superoxide (SO) levels. Apoptotic cell percentages were evaluated by dual labeling with Annexin V-FITC/PI using flow cytometry. Mobile phone and 2450 MHz exposures induced biphasic alterations in NO levels, while 1800 MHz exposure resulted in a sustained reduction in NO. SO levels increased progressively in a time- and frequency-specific manner. Apoptotic analysis revealed early apoptotic activation in mobile and 2450 MHz groups, whereas 1800 MHz exposure led to delayed but sustained late-stage apoptosis. These findings demonstrate that RFR triggers redox imbalance and apoptosis in TM3 cells, with effects varying by frequency and exposure duration. This comparative analysis underscores the biological risks of chronic low-intensity RFR exposure and highlights the growing concerns about RFR-associated testicular stress and its implications for male reproductive toxicity.