A Review on Catalytic Nanostructured Electrodes for Wearable and Implantable Abiotic Glucose Fuel Cells

The global rise in incidence of chronic diseases has led to the demand for innovative solutions that help patients manage their conditions with minimal impact on their daily life. In this context, wearable and implantable bioelectronic devices play a key role by enabling personalized and precise healthcare, improving patient experience, reducing medical costs, advancing health equity and overall improving population health. Glucose fuel cells, which directly convert glucose from body fluids into electrical energy, represent a promising power source for miniaturized and minimally invasive bioelectronics, as they eliminate the need for bulky batteries and external recharging. This paper reviews research advances in this technology, with a particular focus on catalysts for anodic and cathodic reactions. While biological catalysts (pure enzymes or whole microbial cells) have been considered, abiotic catalysis emerges as the most promising option because it enables the engineering of catalytic activity, stability and biocompatibility, and simplified manufacturing. This review identifies current and future directions in abiotic catalysis for reliable and sustainable glucose fuel cells that can power the next generation of bioelectronic devices.