Phospholipase D1 and phosphatidic acid are required for MVE fusion and exosome secretion

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) mediate critical intercellular communication, yet the molecular mechanisms that govern multivesicular endosome (MVE) fusion with the plasma membrane and exosome release remain poorly understood. Phospholipase D1 (PLD1) produces phosphatidic acid (PA), a lipid involved in membrane remodeling, but when and how PLD1 and PA act during exosome secretion has not been defined. Here, we used immunofluorescence and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) to track individual CD63⁺ MVEs together with fluorescent PLD1 or a PA reporter (GFP-PASS) in A549 cells. PLD1 localized to CD63⁺ MVEs during visiting, docking, and fusion. Inhibition or knockdown of PLD1 significantly reduced MVE fusion frequency and decreased the number of secreted small EVs while causing only a modest reduction in vesicle availability at the plasma membrane. PLD1 inhibition also increased the number of membrane-proximal lysosomes, suggesting that MVEs are diverted toward degradation when fusion is impaired. Meanwhile, PA dynamics were stage specific: PA remained low on visiting vesicles, gradually accumulated during docking, and exhibited a sharp spike followed by loss during fusion. PA has been reported to stabilize negative curvature and potentially play a role during fusion. To test whether PA influences fusion pore behavior, we quantified CD63 decay duration (t_1/2) for individual fusion events. k-Means clustering revealed that vesicles with longer decay durations had higher PA levels, whereas short-decay events showed minimal PA. The PA intensity correlated positively with decay duration, while cytosolic GFP did not, indicating a specific relationship between PA and exosome release rates. Furthermore, pharmacological activation of PLD1 increased the proportion of long-decay events. Together, these findings demonstrate that PLD1-generated PA regulates MVE fate at two levels: it promotes the docking-to-fusion transition and prolongs exosome release. This identifies a lipid-based mechanism that controls both the efficiency and kinetics of exosome secretion.