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Rural first-mile pickup and last-mile delivery: A bus-assisted heterogeneous-drone model.
Song Jin1, Lu Wang1, Yunpeng Gong1
1Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology HuaQing College, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China.
Plos One
|April 8, 2026
Summary
Rural e-commerce faces delivery challenges. A novel bus-drone logistics system uses buses as mobile hubs for drone delivery, significantly cutting costs and improving efficiency.
Area of Science:
- Logistics and Supply Chain Management
- Operations Research
- Robotics and Automation
Background:
- Rural e-commerce expansion strains traditional logistics due to dispersed demand and poor infrastructure.
- Conventional truck-based delivery models are becoming unsustainable for first-mile pickup and last-mile delivery in rural areas.
Purpose of the Study:
- To develop and evaluate an innovative bus-assisted heterogeneous-drone scheme for sustainable rural logistics.
- To address the challenges of cost, efficiency, and operational feasibility in rural delivery networks.
Main Methods:
- Formulated a mixed-integer programming model incorporating bus schedules, diverse drone capabilities, time windows, and battery constraints.
- Developed a two-stage solution framework: bus-stop clustering and an Improved Black-Kite Algorithm (IBKA) with novel enhancements.
- IBKA features opposition-based learning, adaptive attack probability, random boundary shrinkage, and a Differential Evolution hybrid operator.
Main Results:
- The IBKA significantly outperformed Gurobi, GA, EGO, and BKA in cost reduction, stability, and convergence.
- IBKA achieved average cost reductions of 5% (vs. GA), 9% (vs. EGO), and 13% (vs. BKA).
- Enhanced operational stability by 23% (vs. GA), 55% (vs. EGO), and 23% (vs. BKA), with drone payload and bus headway being critical factors.
Conclusions:
- The bus-assisted heterogeneous-drone scheme offers a practical and cost-effective solution for rural logistics challenges.
- Real-world application demonstrated substantial savings and operational benefits compared to truck-only and homogeneous-drone systems.
- Bus-drone collaboration is a promising model for the future of sustainable rural e-commerce delivery.
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