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Related Concept Videos

Minerals01:26

Minerals

1.8K
Minerals are essential nutrients that the human body needs in small amounts to work properly. They play a vital role in many bodily functions, such as building strong bones and transmitting nerve impulses. Some minerals are needed for hormone production or to maintain a normal heartbeat. Major minerals include calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium, while trace minerals include iron, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride, and selenium.
 
Major...
1.8K
Halogens03:01

Halogens

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Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. Astatine is a highly unstable radioactive element, so currently, most of its properties are unknown due to its short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element also predicted to be in this group. 
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Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Fluorination and Iodination of Benzene01:13

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Fluorination and Iodination of Benzene

8.1K
Bromination and chlorination of aromatic rings by electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions are easily achieved, but fluorination and iodination are difficult to achieve. Fluorine is so reactive that its reaction with benzene is difficult to control, resulting in poor yields of monofluoroaromatic products. To address this, Selectfluor reagent is used as a fluorine source in which a fluorine atom is bonded to a positively charged nitrogen.
8.1K
Electron Affinity03:07

Electron Affinity

45.0K
The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).
45.0K
Quality of Water01:19

Quality of Water

712
In concrete preparation, the quality of water is paramount as it affects the strength and durability of the concrete. Potable water is usually preferred; however, it must not have excessive sodium or potassium to prevent compromising the concrete's integrity. Water quality is typically evaluated based on impurities such as dissolved solids, chlorides, and sulfates, and its pH value is ideally between 6 and 8. Even slightly acidic natural water may be acceptable unless it contains harmful...
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Factors Affecting Solubility04:01

Factors Affecting Solubility

39.3K
Compared with pure water, the solubility of an ionic compound is less in aqueous solutions containing a common ion (one also produced by dissolution of the ionic compound). This is an example of a phenomenon known as the common ion effect, which is a consequence of the law of mass action that may be explained using Le Chȃtelier’s principle. Consider the dissolution of silver iodide:
39.3K

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Updated: Apr 11, 2026

Implementation of a Hyperbolic Vortex Plasma Reactor for the Removal of Micropollutants in Water
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Water fluoridation today: - benefits and challenges.

Andrew Rugg-Gunn1, Ray Lowry2,3, Barry Cockcroft4

  • 1Professor Emeritus, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom.

Frontiers in Oral Health
|April 10, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Water fluoridation is a safe and effective method for preventing dental caries globally, benefiting millions. This public health measure is cost-effective, equitable, and has minimal health risks when concentrations are properly managed.

Keywords:
dental cariesdental fluorosiseconomic evaluationfluoridation and public opinionfluoridation and the environmentfluoride and healthhealth equityhealth inequalities

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Area of Science:

  • Public Health
  • Dental Research
  • Epidemiology

Background:

  • Community water fluoridation, initiated in 1945, now reaches over 400 million people globally.
  • Widespread adoption in countries like the USA, Australia, and Brazil demonstrates its established presence.
  • The equitable coverage ensures that populations most vulnerable to dental caries receive the greatest benefit.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the global role of water fluoridation in preventing dental caries.
  • To highlight the clinical effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, and safety of water fluoridation.
  • To discuss the future prospects and recommendations for community water fluoridation.

Main Methods:

  • This is a review article, synthesizing existing data and research on water fluoridation.
  • The review examines clinical effectiveness, population coverage, cost-effectiveness, and health impacts.
  • It considers global trends, including urbanization and technological advancements.

Main Results:

  • Water fluoridation is clinically effective in preventing dental caries, with synergistic effects when combined with fluoride toothpaste.
  • It is cost-effective, has a low environmental impact, and poses no health risks below 1.5 mgF/L.
  • While dental fluorosis prevalence is higher, its severity is typically mild to very mild.

Conclusions:

  • Water fluoridation is a highly effective, equitable, and safe public health intervention for dental caries prevention.
  • The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that member states consider implementing community water fluoridation.
  • Continued global urbanization and technological improvements support a promising future for water fluoridation programs.