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Related Concept Videos

Acid Halides to Ketones: Gilman Reagent01:14

Acid Halides to Ketones: Gilman Reagent

4.4K
Lithium dialkyl cuprate, also known as Gilman reagents, selectively reduces acid halides to ketones. The acid chloride is treated with Gilman reagent at −78 °C in the presence of ether solution to produce a ketone in good yield.
As shown below, the mechanism proceeds in two steps. First, one of the alkyl groups of the reagent acts as a nucleophile and attacks the acyl carbon of the acid chloride to form a tetrahedral intermediate. This is followed by the reformation of the carbon–oxygen...
4.4K
Acid Halides to Alcohols: LiAlH4 Reduction01:19

Acid Halides to Alcohols: LiAlH4 Reduction

4.4K
Acid halides are reduced to alcohols in the presence of a strong reducing agent like lithium aluminum hydride.
The mechanism proceeds in three steps. First, the nucleophilic hydride ion attacks the carbonyl carbon of the acid halide to form a tetrahedral intermediate. Next, the carbonyl group is re-formed, and the halide ion departs as a leaving group, generating an aldehyde. A second nucleophilic attack by the hydride yields an alkoxide ion, which, upon protonation, gives a primary alcohol as...
4.4K
Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions02:34

Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions

21.1K
Historical perspective
In 1896, the German chemist Paul Walden discovered that he could interconvert pure enantiomeric (+) and (-) malic acids through a series of reactions. This conversion suggested the involvement of optical inversion during the substitution reaction. Further, in 1930, Sir Christopher Ingold described for the first time two different forms of nucleophilic substitution reactions, which are known as SN1 (nucleophilic substitution unimolecular) and SN2 (nucleophilic substitution...
21.1K
Acid Halides to Alcohols: Grignard Reaction01:15

Acid Halides to Alcohols: Grignard Reaction

3.4K
Organomagnesium halides, commonly known as Grignard reagents, convert acid halides to tertiary alcohols. The reaction requires two equivalents of the Grignard reagent and proceeds via a ketone intermediate.
Grignard reagents are a source of carbanions and function as nucleophiles. The mechanism begins with the nucleophilic attack by the carbanion at the carbonyl carbon of the acid halide to form a tetrahedral intermediate. Next, the carbonyl group is re-formed, and the halide ion departs,...
3.4K
Alkali Metals03:06

Alkali Metals

25.6K
Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the alkali metals are unusually low for metals and decrease going down the group, while the density increases going down the group with the exception of potassium (Table 1).
Table 1: Properties of the alkali metals
25.6K
Acidity of 1-Alkynes02:42

Acidity of 1-Alkynes

11.6K

The acidic strength of hydrocarbons follows the order: Alkynes > Alkenes > Alkanes. The strength of an acid is commonly expressed in units of pKa — the lower the pKa, the stronger the acid. Among the hydrocarbons, terminal alkynes have lower pKa values and are, therefore, more acidic. For example, the pKa values for ethane, ethene, and acetylene are 51, 44, and 25, respectively, as shown here.
11.6K

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Related Experiment Video

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An In Vitro Enzymatic Assay to Measure Transcription Inhibition by GalliumIII and H3 5,10,15-trispentafluorophenylcorroles
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An In Vitro Enzymatic Assay to Measure Transcription Inhibition by GalliumIII and H3 5,10,15-trispentafluorophenylcorroles

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Gallium in liquid state shows nuclease-mimicking activity.

Li Liu1,2, Jiewei Zheng3, Xi Lu4,5

  • 1School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

Nature Communications
|April 10, 2026
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Summary

Liquid gallium demonstrates nuclease-like activity, mimicking enzymes with minimal components. This abiotic mimicry platform offers tunable, programmable control for synthetic biology and therapeutic applications.

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Area of Science:

  • Abiotic mimicry
  • Biomimetic chemistry
  • Enzyme catalysis

Background:

  • Replicating biological systems with non-living materials is crucial for abiotic mimicry.
  • Mimicking enzyme function with minimal components presents a significant challenge.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the potential of liquid gallium to exhibit enzyme-like activity.
  • To develop a minimalistic artificial nuclease platform.

Main Methods:

  • Characterization of liquid gallium's interaction with nucleic acids.
  • Analysis of the hydrolysis mechanism involving nucleotide adsorption and hydroxyl radicals.
  • Evaluation of tunable activity through synthesis parameters and external stimuli.

Main Results:

  • Liquid gallium exhibits nuclease-like activity with specific cleavage sites.
  • The mechanism involves nucleotide-biased adsorption and hydroxyl radical-assisted hydrolysis.
  • Activity is tunable and programmable via external stimuli.

Conclusions:

  • Liquid gallium serves as a ligand- and cofactor-free artificial nuclease platform.
  • This minimalistic approach expands enzyme mimicry possibilities.
  • Potential applications in therapeutics, synthetic biology, and biomaterials.