Park-community Relationships in Lovćen National Park, Montenegro

Protected areas are increasingly recognized not only as biodiversity reserves but also dynamic social-ecological systems. This paper explores how participatory and adaptive co-management can be implemented in Lovćen National Park (LNP), Montenegro-an area where nearly two-thirds of the land is privately owned. The study responds to the global shift from centralized "fortress conservation" to inclusive models of governance. Using a mixed-methods approach conducted between 2018 and 2022 (surveys, semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and field observation) and involving a total of 100 participants, we identify barriers to participatory management, such as low institutional trust, weak communication, and the marginalization of traditional land users. We propose a localized, context-sensitive model of community engagement tailored to the heterogeneity of rural settlements in LNP. Drawing on theories of adaptive co-management and the integration of traditional ecological knowledge, as well as lessons from other governance systems, the findings demonstrate that participatory conservation in complex ownership contexts is not only possible but also necessary. The paper concludes with implications for conservation policy and practice in Southeastern Europe and beyond.