Clinical diagnosis of spinal metastases: a narrative review

Spinal metastases are a frequent and disabling manifestation of systemic cancer. Pain, neurological compromise, and functional decline dominate the clinical picture, yet diagnostic delays remain common despite widespread MRI availability. To synthesize contemporary evidence on the clinical diagnosis of spinal metastases, emphasizing context‑dependent reasoning, characteristic clinical patterns, key differential diagnosis, and the central role of structured clinical examination. The review integrates recent epidemiological data, highlighting the influence of tumor histology, frailty, and treatment‑related toxicities on presentation. Pain phenotypes, radicular and myelopathic signs, and systemic symptoms are detailed, along with common mimickers such as osteoporotic fractures, spondylodiscitis, spinal hematoma, and chemotherapy‑induced peripheral neuropathy. The manuscript underscores the diagnostic and prognostic value of standardized neurological assessment (Frankel,ASIA), mechanical evaluation (SINS), and global patient appraisal through performance status and frailty measures. Historical prognostic scores (Tokuhashi, Tomita, Bauer, OSRI) and contemporary frameworks such as NOMS are discussed as structured extensions of clinical examination. Strengthening clinical examination skills and integrating neurological, mechanical, oncologic, and systemic dimensions are essential to reduce diagnostic delays and guide personalized, multidisciplinary management of spinal metastases.