Enhancing the knowledge and understanding domain of physical literacy: instrument validation and a Kahoot-supported...

The Knowledge and Understanding (K&U) domain plays a fundamental role in Physical Literacy (PL), yet Physical Education (PE) lessons in Romania-and many Eastern European countries-remain largely sport-based, with limited emphasis on K&U. To support PL-oriented instructional practices, validated tools are needed to assess students' knowledge, as well as pedagogical approaches integrating digital learning methods. This study aimed (1) to develop and validate a standardized instrument for assessing the K&U domain of PL in PE, and (2) to examine the effectiveness of a year-long Kahoot-supported intervention designed to enhance this domain.

The instrument was developed through a multi-stage validation process, including item generation, expert evaluation, pretesting, student interviews, and test-retest reliability assessment. Intervention effectiveness was examined using a mixed-methods design. The quantitative component employed a quasi-experimental design with an experimental group (n = 27) and a control group (n = 27). The experimental group participated in 14 Kahoot-supported theoretical lessons integrated into the PE curriculum, while the control group followed traditional lessons. A qualitative focus-group interview was conducted with the experimental group after the intervention, and data were analyzed using thematic analysis.

The instrument demonstrated high clarity, relevance, balanced difficulty, and excellent reliability (r = 0.94). Significant improvements were observed in the experimental group's K&U scores [t(25) = -8.66, p < 0.001; d = 1.7], while the control group showed no change [t(20) = -0.48, p = 0.63]. Post-test comparisons also favored the experimental group [t(45) = -4.75, p < 0.001; d = 1.39]. Qualitative thematic analysis revealed four themes: increased enthusiasm, positive competitiveness, facilitated learning, and suggestions for diversification.

The findings indicate that theoretical learning does not occur spontaneously during traditional sport-based PE lessons. Structured theoretical instruction, especially when supported by gamified digital tools, can enhance students' K&U and aligns with the holistic philosophy of PL.

This study introduces the first standardized knowledge assessment instrument for Romanian PE and demonstrates the effectiveness and feasibility of Kahoot-supported theoretical lessons. This approach offers a practical pathway for countries transitioning from sport-based PE toward PL-oriented practices.