Ultrasonic-Based Quantification and Process Parameter Optimization of Anisotropy and Heterogeneity in WAAM 2319...

Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) offers high deposition efficiency for large-scale aluminum components; however, layer-by-layer thermal cycling often induces microstructural anisotropy and spatial heterogeneity, which compromise structural reliability. In this study, an ultrasonic-based quantitative framework is proposed to evaluate and optimize anisotropy and heterogeneity in WAAM 2319 aluminum alloy. Nine blocks were fabricated using an orthogonal design with three key process parameters: torch travel speed, arc current, and shielding gas flow rate. Ultrasonic velocity and attenuation were employed to construct anisotropy and heterogeneity indicators. Results show that velocity-based anisotropy remains below 0.53%, indicating nearly isotropic elastic stiffness, whereas attenuation-based anisotropy reaches up to 76%, revealing pronounced direction-dependent microstructural and porosity features. Metallographic analysis confirms that grain morphology variation and interlayer porosity jointly govern attenuation responses. Response surface surrogate models were established to correlate ultrasonic indicators with process parameters, and both single- and multi-objective optimizations were performed within the feasible process window. The proposed framework provides a non-destructive, volumetric approach for microstructure-informed process parameter optimization in WAAM aluminum alloys.