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Related Concept Videos

Bending of Members Made of Several Materials01:11

Bending of Members Made of Several Materials

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In analyzing a structural member composed of two different materials with identical cross-sectional areas, it is crucial to understand how their distinct elastic properties affect the member's response under load. The analysis involves assessing stress and strain distributions using the transformed section concept, which accounts for variations in material properties.
Hooke's Law determines stress in each material, stating that stress is proportional to strain but varies due to each material's...
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Plastic Deformations01:19

Plastic Deformations

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Plastic deformation represents a fundamental concept in materials science, which explains the irreversible change in the shape of a material when it experiences stress beyond its elastic capability. This phenomenon is important in structural engineering, especially in designing and analyzing cantilever beams—structures that are securely fixed at one end and bear loads at the opposite end. When these beams are subjected to loads within their elastic range, they will return to their...
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Plastic Deformations01:14

Plastic Deformations

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It is essential to understand how structural members behave under plastic deformation when the bending stress exceeds the material's yield strength. This state of deformation permanently alters the shape of the member, in contrast to the linear elastic behavior observed before yielding. The strain at any point in the member is expressed in terms of maximum strain. Notably, the neutral axis, which coincides with the centroid during elastic bending, shifts away from the centroid under plastic...
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Plastic Behavior01:21

Plastic Behavior

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A material's elastic behavior is characterized by the disappearance of stress once the load is removed, allowing the material to return to its original state. However, when stress surpasses the yield point, yielding commences, marking the onset of plastic deformation or permanent set. This change from elastic to plastic behavior is influenced by the peak stress value and the duration before the load is removed. An intriguing observation occurs when a specimen is loaded, unloaded, and...
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Relation between Poisson's ratio, Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity01:15

Relation between Poisson's ratio, Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity

774
Deformation occurs in axial and transverse directions when an axial load is applied to a slender bar. This deformation impacts the cubic element within the bar, transforming it into either a rectangular parallelepiped or a rhombus, contingent on its orientation. This transformation process induces shearing strain. Axial loading elicits both shearing and normal strains. Applying an axial load instigates equal normal and shearing stresses on elements oriented at a 45° angle to the load axis.
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Plastic Deformations of Members with a Single Plane of Symmetry01:21

Plastic Deformations of Members with a Single Plane of Symmetry

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When a structural member undergoes plastic deformation due to bending, it is crucial to understand the position of the neutral axis and the stress distribution. This member, characterized by a single plane of symmetry, exhibits a uniform stress distribution, with negative stress above the neutral axis and positive stress below. Notably, the neutral axis does not align with the centroid of the cross-section. This misalignment is typical in cases where the cross-section is not rectangular or...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 15, 2026

A Soft Tooling Process Chain for Injection Molding of a 3D Component with Micro Pillars
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Process-Structure Relationships Governing Dimensional Accuracy in Material-Extrusion-Printed PLA-Based Composites.

Alexandra Ana Medruț1, Emanoil Linul1

  • 1Department of Mechanics and Strength of Materials, Politehnica University of Timisoara, 1 Mihai Viteazu Blvd., 300222 Timisoara, Romania.

Polymers
|April 14, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Material extrusion (MEX) manufacturing shows variations in PLA composites. Dimensional accuracy depends on coupled structure-process interactions, not just individual parameters, guiding material selection for better fidelity.

Keywords:
PLA-based compositesdimensional accuracyextrusion stabilitymaterial extrusion AMporosityrelative densitystructure-process-dimension relationships

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Area of Science:

  • Additive Manufacturing
  • Materials Science
  • Polymer Composites

Background:

  • Material extrusion (MEX) additive manufacturing exhibits inherent material-dependent variations affecting dimensional fidelity, internal structure, and deposition stability.
  • These variations persist even under identical processing conditions, posing challenges for consistent part production.
  • PLA-based composites are widely used but their complex formulations can exacerbate these inherent MEX challenges.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To conduct a comprehensive experimental investigation on MEX-printed PLA-based composite specimens.
  • To quantify material-dependent variations in dimensional fidelity, internal structure, and deposition stability.
  • To assess the mutual interdependence of these variations and their impact on geometric accuracy.

Main Methods:

  • Systematic investigation of dimensional behavior, internal structure, and process behavior using geometric, physical, and deposition descriptors.
  • Manufacturing of replicated specimens from diverse PLA-based composite formulations for statistical robustness.
  • Analysis using conventional metrics and multivariate 3D correlation approaches to examine datasets.

Main Results:

  • Compact PLA formulations showed consistent internal packing (RD ~0.40-0.46), low porosity (~55-60%), low density variability (CV ≤0.15%), and small volumetric deviations (ΔV -0.4% to 0.0%), indicating stable extrusion.
  • Foamed, fiber-reinforced, and organic-filled composites exhibited reduced packing (RD <0.40), increased porosity (>60%), higher variability (CV 0.27-0.58%), and larger positive volumetric deviations (ΔV up to +1.4%), showing higher heterogeneity sensitivity.
  • Multivariate correlations revealed that volumetric dimensional distortion is jointly influenced by internal packing efficiency and extrusion stability.

Conclusions:

  • Dimensional accuracy in MEX of PLA-based composites is a result of coupled structure-process interactions, not isolated parameters.
  • Material selection and process optimization require consideration of these interdependencies for enhanced geometric fidelity.
  • The proposed experimental framework offers quantitative guidance for improving composite filament fabrication.