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A Protocol for the Administration of Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback Training

A Protocol for the Administration of Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback Training

Published on: August 24, 2017

Optimizing Session Frequency in EEG Biofeedback: A Comparative Study of Protocol Dynamics and Neuromuscular

Alicja Markiel¹, Dariusz Skalski², Kinga Łosińska²

¹Institute of Sport Sciences, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland.

Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)

|April 14, 2026

Abstract

Background:

The optimal frequency of EEG biofeedback sessions for elite athletes remains unclear, despite growing adoption of neurofeedback in high-performance sport.

Methods:

This randomized, controlled study compared three EEG biofeedback protocols (daily, every-other-day, every-third-day) in 24 national-level male judo athletes stratified into three phenotypic groups. Each protocol comprised 15 standardized sessions. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included functional indices (strength, power) and neurophysiological measures (Frontal Alpha Index, EMG amplitude/RMS, corrected strength sum). Biosensor performance was validated via signal quality metrics.

Results:

Daily EEG biofeedback produced superior improvements in strength, FAI, and fatigue resistance. Although LRG showed the largest pre-post RMS increase (+17.44 μV vs. +16.54 μV in HRG), HRG maintained the highest post-intervention RMS values and best fatigue resistance (MF_drop = -2.15 Hz). Significant group × time interactions were observed for FAI (p = 0.027) and RMS (p = 0.019). Every-other-day protocols yielded moderate gains, while every-third-day protocols produced minimal or maladaptive EMG-load dynamics. A robust dose-response relationship was evident.

Conclusions:

Session frequency is critical for optimizing neurofeedback interventions in elite athletes. Daily EEG biofeedback confers superior adaptation compared to less frequent dosing.

Keywords:

biosensor validation cortical plasticity dose–response relationship fatigue resistance frontal alpha index individual responder phenotypes motor learning consolidation motor unit recruitment

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