Reading between the lines: Universal structure and cultural variation in advanced theory of mind

This study examined the development of advanced theory of mind (AToM) across cultural contexts by comparing Japanese and German elementary school children. In Study 1, 401 Japanese children (8- to 12-year-olds) completed a paper-based AToM battery assessing social reasoning, norm recognition, and reasoning about ambiguity. Study 2 compared a matched subset of Japanese children (n = 148) with German peers (n = 148) using propensity score matching. German children showed higher performance on recursive ToM and norm recognition, particularly in early grades; Japanese children demonstrated more gradual gains. Factor analysis revealed a universal three-factor AToM structure across cultures. These findings support a concept-integrative view of AToM as a shared framework shaped by cultural learning environments and communicative norms, with implications for culturally responsive education.