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Organization of the Brain

Organization of the Brain

The brain is an integral component of the nervous system and serves as the center for processing sensory inputs, making decisions, and directing bodily actions. This complex organ is organized into three primary sections: the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain, each responsible for a range of vital functions.
Hindbrain
The hindbrain, located at the base of the brain, plays a vital role in regulating automatic processes that sustain life. It includes the medulla oblongata, which is essential for...

Somatosensory, Motor, and Association Cortex

Somatosensory, Motor, and Association Cortex

The somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobes is crucial for interpreting sensory data such as touch, temperature, and proprioception. The somatosensory cortex, situated in the parietal lobes, plays a vital role in interpreting sensory information like touch, temperature, and proprioception—awareness of body position. This specialized brain region features an organized structure wherein neurons at the top primarily process sensations originating from the lower body. In contrast, those at...

Propagation of Action Potentials

Propagation of Action Potentials

The propagation of an action potential refers to the process by which a nerve impulse, or "action potential," travels along a neuron.
Neurons (nerve cells) have a resting membrane potential, with a slightly negative charge inside compared to outside. This is maintained by ion channels, such as sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) channels, which control the flow of ions. When a stimulus, like a touch or a signal from another neuron, triggers the neuron, sodium channels open, allowing sodium ions to...

Association Areas of the Cortex

Association Areas of the Cortex

Association areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that do not have a specific sensory or motor function. Instead, they integrate and interpret information from various sources to enable higher cognitive processes such as memory, learning, and decision-making. Some key association areas include the following:
Prefrontal Association Area: This area is located in the frontal lobe and is involved in planning, decision-making, and moderating social behavior. It connects with primary motor areas,...

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

The cerebral cortex, the brain's outermost layer, is pivotal in processing complex cognitive tasks, emotions, and various sensory inputs and executing voluntary motor activities. This intricate structure is divided into three primary functional areas: the motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas.
Motor Areas
The motor areas located in the frontal lobe are central to controlling voluntary movements. This region is further subdivided into the primary motor cortex and the premotor cortex....

Anatomy of the Brain: Major Regions

Anatomy of the Brain: Major Regions

The brain is the most complex organ in the human body. It consists of four main parts: the cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, and brainstem.
The cerebrum is the largest section of the brain and divides into left and right hemispheres, separated by a deep fissure. The cerebral outer layer of grey matter — the cerebral cortex — comprises elevations called gyri and shallow groves called sulci. The inner portion of white matter includes long nerve fibers known as axons, which connect...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 18, 2026

Large-scale Three-dimensional Imaging of Cellular Organization in the Mouse Neocortex

Large-scale Three-dimensional Imaging of Cellular Organization in the Mouse Neocortex

Published on: September 5, 2018

An opposing molecular gradient axis underlies primate cortical organization.

Zhi Huang^1,2,3, Qianqian Yang^1,4,5, Shenglong Li^1,2,3

¹Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Evolution and Animal Models, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.

Science (New York, N.Y.)

|April 16, 2026

Summary

Two opposing molecular gradients organize primate brain development and connectivity. These gradients, refined after birth, offer insights into cortical organization and evolution, particularly in auditory processing.

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Last Updated: Apr 18, 2026

Large-scale Three-dimensional Imaging of Cellular Organization in the Mouse Neocortex

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Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Genomics
Comparative Biology

Background:

Cellular diversity and connectivity in primate brains are not fully understood.
Existing hypotheses on cortical expansion lack comprehensive integration.

Purpose of the Study:

To identify fundamental organizational principles of the primate cerebral cortex.
To investigate the molecular basis of cortical organization and evolution.

Main Methods:

Integrated spatial transcriptomics, magnetic resonance imaging, and retrograde labeling in marmosets.
Analyzed gene expression patterns and thalamocortical projections.
Performed comparative analysis of gradient-related genes across species.

Main Results:

Identified two opposing molecular gradients emanating from allocortices and primary sensory cortices.
Demonstrated that these gradients align with thalamic gene expression and projection patterns.
Found conserved molecular features in the default mode network and frontal pole between humans and marmosets.

Conclusions:

Opposing molecular gradients represent a fundamental organizing principle of the primate cortex.
These gradients contribute to understanding cortical area characterization and evolution.
Insights into auditory cortex evolution may be linked to complex vocalization patterns.