Comparative genotoxic and developmental effects of bisphenol analogs on human lymphocytes and Lymnaea stagnalis

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely used plasticiser known for endocrine-disrupting and genotoxic properties. Increasing regulatory restrictions have led to its replacement with structurally similar analogues, including bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol E (BPE), whose toxicological profiles remain incompletely understood. This study evaluated the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of BPA and its analogues using the micronucleus assay in cultured human peripheral blood lymphocytes and in the freshwater gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis. Moreover, physiological endpoints including growth and reproduction were evaluated in the snail. BPA induced the strongest genotoxic and cytotoxic responses, significantly increasing micronucleus frequency and reducing cell proliferation. BPF and BPS showed comparable effects, sometimes even higher for physiological endpoints, while BPE consistently produced the lowest biological impact. Our findings indicate that BPA substitutes are not necessarily safer and highlight the need for further investigation of their long-term and ecological impacts before their widespread adoption.