The autophagy switch: A critical determinant of arsenic-induced carcinogenesis and cancer therapy

Arsenic, a widespread environmental toxicant and unexpectedly effective chemotherapeutic agent, has complex and significant effects on cellular homeostasis. Autophagy, a conserved lysosomal degradation process, plays a key role in arsenic's dual functions as a carcinogen and a treatment. While current reviews have documented interactions between arsenic and autophagy, this review introduces a new conceptual model: the "Autophagy Switch." We propose that the cellular choice between autophagy-assisted survival and autophagy-dependent death is not simply black and white but exists within a dynamic balance called the Arsenic Contextual Triad-comprising chemical form, exposure pattern (dose and duration), and the cell's oncogenic background. We compile evidence showing how this switch influences outcomes across the cancer spectrum, from promoting skin cancer through p62/Nrf2 feedback loops to breaking down oncogenic factors like PML-RARα and BCR-ABL in leukemia. Additionally, we critically assess the therapeutic potential of targeting this switch, emphasizing how drugs that either inhibit or promote autophagy can work together with arsenic trioxide (ATO) to combat drug resistance in solid tumors such as glioblastoma and ovarian cancer. By shifting from simple descriptions to a detailed mechanistic and contextual understanding, this review offers a valuable guide for future research aiming to harness the autophagy switch for cancer prevention and personalized treatment.