Perceived housing inadequacy and health: Cumulative and gendered effects beyond objective housing standards

This study investigates whether cumulative exposure to perceived inadequate housing conditions is associated with multiple health outcomes, independent of objective housing standards. We further examine whether these associations differ by gender. Using data from the Korea Welfare Panel Study (KoWePS, 2006-2022; N = 22,975 individuals; 177,267 person-years), we constructed a cumulative measure of subjective housing inadequacy based on the number of consecutive waves in which respondents reported lacking adequate soundproofing, ventilation, natural lighting, or heating. We employed individual fixed effects regression models to estimate within-person changes in four health outcomes: depressive symptoms, self-rated health, chronic disease, and outpatient visits. Gender-stratified analyses showed that the associations between cumulative perceived housing inadequacy and depressive symptoms were more pronounced among women, whereas gender differences in physical health outcomes were comparatively modest. Overall, perceived housing inadequacy takes a cumulative toll on mental and physical health, independent of objective housing standards. The findings highlight the importance of integrating subjective perceptions into housing and public health policy and the need for gender-sensitive interventions in addressing housing-related health disparities.