Advanced electrospinning techniques for the fabrication of multi-layered 3D nanofiber scaffolds for tissue...

Electrospinning is a flexible and viable technique for producing ultrathin fibers. Over the past decade, remarkable progress has been made in the development of electrospinning techniques to fabricate customized nanofibers (NFs) that fulfill specific application needs. This study provides a comprehensive overview of advanced electrospinning approaches, such as coaxial, aligned, template-assisted electrospinning (TAE), near-field electrospinning (NFE), and layer-by-layer (LBL) fabrication, used for the production of three-dimensional (3D) NFs scaffolds. Recently, multilayer (ML) 3D NFs scaffolds have gained immense attention due to the design flexibility, structural integrity, versatile functionality, and resemblance to the native extracellular matrices (ECMs). However, existing reviews are limited in covering emerging trends and recent progress in ML and 3D electrospun scaffolds. A critical gap remains in synthesizing recent progress in 3D and ML electrospun scaffolds, which represent a transformative development in tissue engineering (TE). Therefore, this review specifically focused on the development of ML NFs scaffold and their application in TE and regenerative medicine (RM). The design of ML electrospun scaffolds allows the integration of 3D morphology, mechanical strength, biochemical signals, and antibacterial properties into a single structure. This review compiles recent advancements in electrospinning techniques, methodologies used for the fabrication of 3D scaffolds, and their applications in TE, including bone, cartilage, dental, and corneal tissue restoration, wound healing, and antibacterial activities. The literature reports that ML is becoming a key technology in RM.