Neuroimaging studies of extra-sensory perception: A systematic and critical review

Research efforts spanning more than seven decades have used functional neuroimaging to investigate whether putative extra‑sensory perception (ESP/receptive psi) has identifiable neural correlates. However, the field lacks a coherent and critical synthesis of its methodological approaches and reported effects. We conducted a systematic review consolidating 143 reports and qualitatively evaluated the methods of 129 individual studies. We organized studies by paradigm using two broad categories: (1) explicit psi paradigms (including forced-choice and free-response design subcategories), in which psi is assessed via overt responses; and (2) implicit psi paradigms (including distant stimulation, distant intentionality, and predictive anticipatory activity subcategories), in which psi is assessed solely via neurophysiology. Most work relied on EEG (91%), followed by fMRI (5%). We identified recurrent methodological limitations, in particular, small sample sizes, inadequate multiple‑comparison control, and analytical flexibility. Explicit paradigms rarely showed above‑chance behavior, yet investigators frequently proceeded to neural analyses, implying unacknowledged shifts in the operational definition of psi. Implicit paradigms often reported psi‑consistent effects, but findings were heterogeneous and seldom replicated. Overall, definitive conclusions about the neural correlates of ESP remain premature. Nevertheless, we identify potential leads-such as alpha‑band power in forced-choice designs, and a target‑related negative slow wave in event‑related designs-as testable candidates for future research. We provide a set of 13 methodological recommendations to promote cumulative progress, as well as 6 recommendations for future research directions.