From organoid culture to manufacturing: technologies for reproducible and scalable organoid production

In this review, we systematically categorize diverse organoid engineering strategies-including cellular programming, material engineering, and platform- or system-level innovations-according to their impact on reproducibility and scalability, and highlight representative applications and emerging directions. By reframing organoid generation as a manufacturing process, these technological advances pave the way toward standardized and high-fidelity organoid production for both fundamental research and translational applications.