Transcranial Brain Stimulation for Neurodevelopmental Disorders : Neuromodulation and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are characterized by cognitive, behavioral, and emotional challenges that significantly impact quality of life. Despite advances in pharmacological and behavioral interventions, many individuals exhibit partial or limited responses, highlighting the need for innovative therapeutic strategies. Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques, particularly transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), have emerged as promising approaches to modulate neural circuits underlying these conditions. Beyond neural modulation, these techniques offer potential clinical benefits, such as improving cognitive and behavioral outcomes in individuals with NDDs, thereby addressing treatment gaps in conventional therapies. While TES primarily alters cortical excitability through electric fields, TMS induces direct neuronal firing via magnetic fields, allowing distinct applications tailored to specific conditions.This review examines the mechanisms, applications, and limitations of TES, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), and TMS, including repetitive TMS (rTMS) and theta-burst stimulation.