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Granulate-to-Filament: An Extrusion-Mixed PLA-Human Bone Material System for 3D-Printed Bone Scaffolds
Jonas Neijhoft1, Hela Weslati1, Volker Eras2
1Department of Trauma and Orthopaedics, Goethe University Frankfurt, Jonas Neijhoft, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
Journal of Functional Biomaterials
|April 27, 2026
Summary
A new extrusion toolkit allows high-content polylactic acid (PLA) filaments with bone particles for 3D printing patient-specific bone scaffolds. These filaments offer improved printability, cell adhesion, and tunable mechanical properties compared to plain PLA.
Area of Science:
- Biomaterials Engineering
- Tissue Engineering
- Additive Manufacturing
Background:
- Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is promising for patient-specific bone scaffolds, but bioinert filaments limit functionalization.
- Challenges include particle segregation, agglomeration, and instability at high filler loadings.
Purpose of the Study:
- To develop a mechanism-guided extrusion toolkit for high-loading polylactic acid (PLA) filaments with demineralized bone matrix (DBM) or cortical granulate (CG).
- To assess the printability, dispersion, biological response, and mechanical properties of these composite filaments.
Main Methods:
- PLA was processed with DBM or CG (25-70 wt%) using specialized extrusion techniques (starve-fed, sequential, post-die mixing).
- Filaments were used for FFF of bone scaffold prototypes (disks, tubes).
- Mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) adhesion, gene expression (qPCR), and mechanical properties (three-point bending) were evaluated.
Main Results:
- The toolkit produced dimensionally stable, printable filaments with uniform particle dispersion up to 70 wt%.
- Composites enhanced MSC adhesion versus PLA; DBM40 increased RUNX2 expression, and CG25 elevated VEGF.
- Mechanical properties varied with filler type and loading, with some formulations recovering stiffness.
Conclusions:
- The mechanism-guided extrusion toolkit enables high-loading PLA-DBM/CG filaments with excellent printability.
- These composite filaments offer material-specific biological and mechanical advantages over pure PLA for bone regeneration applications.
