Transplant Allograft Markers of Rejection for Heart, Liver, and Kidney Transplantation: A Review

Every year, the incidence of heart, liver, and kidney transplants rises. This is due to robust transplant networks, improvements in procurement strategies, and advances in surgical techniques. However, long-term transplant rejection monitoring and diagnosis continue to rely on biopsy confirmation. We review the latest updates on biomarkers of transplant rejection. These include donor-specific antibodies, which are now routinely in use, and cell-free DNA and microRNA, which are still being tested for their diagnostic efficacy. This review aims to serve as a reference tool for providers as the field continues to evolve and improve outcomes in transplant care.