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The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
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Goiter

Goiter

Goiter refers to an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland that may appear as a diffuse goiter (uniform enlargement) or nodular (single or multiple nodules). Functionally, it is classified as nontoxic (normal/low hormone levels) or toxic (excess hormone production).PathophysiologyDiffuse thyroid enlargement typically results from prolonged stimulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or TSH-like agents, commonly seen in hypothyroidism or iodine deficiency. In contrast, in hyperthyroid...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

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Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH...

Positron Emission Tomography

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Positron emission tomography (PET) is a medical imaging technique involving radiopharmaceuticals — substances that emit short-lived radiation. Although the first PET scanner was introduced in 1961, it took 15 more years before radiopharmaceuticals were combined with the technique and revolutionized its potential.
One of the main requirements of a PET scan is a positron-emitting radioisotope, which is produced in a cyclotron and then attached to a substance used by the part of the body...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 30, 2026

A Swin Transformer-Based Model for Thyroid Nodule Detection in Ultrasound Images

A Swin Transformer-Based Model for Thyroid Nodule Detection in Ultrasound Images

Published on: April 21, 2023

A lightweight GhostYOLO framework with GhostDynamic Module and multi-scale attention for thyroid nodule diagnosis.

Dianhuan Tan¹, Chen Cheng¹, Tingting Zheng²

¹Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Drug Addiction and Medication Safety, Department of Ultrasound, Institute of Ultrasonic Medicine, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen Peking University-The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Medical Center, Shenzhen, 518036, Guangdong, P. R. China.

Scientific Reports

|April 28, 2026

Summary

A new deep learning model, GhostYOLO, enhances thyroid nodule detection using ultrasound images. This efficient AI tool shows strong potential for improving diagnostic accuracy in clinical settings.

Keywords:

Deep learning GhostYOLO MSAttention Thyroid cancer Ultrasound diagnostics

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Area of Science:

Medical Imaging
Artificial Intelligence
Computer-Aided Diagnosis

Background:

Ultrasound is the standard for thyroid nodule assessment.
Current methods require improved diagnostic accuracy and efficiency.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop a high-performance, computationally efficient deep learning model for thyroid nodule detection.
To introduce GhostYOLO, a novel framework improving upon existing YOLO models.

Main Methods:

Proposed GhostYOLO framework incorporating a GhostDynamic Module and Multi-Scale Attention (MSAttention).
Trained and evaluated on an internal dataset (12,385 images) and validated on an external public dataset (8,500 images).

Main Results:

Internal validation: mAP of 67.2%, F1-Score of 86.3%.
External validation: mAP50 of 74.4%, F1-Score of 79.5%.
Model efficiency: 9.3 million parameters, 20.2 GFLOPs.

Conclusions:

GhostYOLO provides a robust and computationally efficient solution for automated thyroid nodule detection.
The model demonstrates significant potential to assist in clinical diagnosis and improve patient outcomes.