Tandem repeats in human brain evolution and disease susceptibility

Tandem repeats (TRs) are dynamic genomic elements characterized by exceptionally high mutation rates, reversibility, and the capacity to generate graduated phenotypic effects. These properties enable TRs to modulate gene regulation at multiple levels-from transcription and chromatin organization to splicing and protein function. In the human lineage, TR expansions have been recurrently associated with brain evolution, with human-specific repeats enriched near neurodevelopmental genes and linked to neural-specific regulatory elements. However, this same mutational plasticity that facilitated cognitive innovation also introduced genomic instability, rendering the nervous system particularly vulnerable to repeat-associated dysfunction. The brain's unique cellular and molecular properties create an environment particularly permissive to repeat-mediated pathology. Recent studies have revealed diverse pathogenic mechanisms beyond classical models, highlighting the multifaceted ways in which repeat instability can disrupt neural function. Understanding TRs as integral components of neural regulatory architecture, rather than isolated pathogenic loci, provides a framework for interpreting the genetic basis of neurological and psychiatric disorders.