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Development of Human Microbiota01:30

Development of Human Microbiota

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The human microbiota begins developing at birth and undergoes continual change as we age. Infancy marks a critical period of microbial sensitivity, offering a “window of opportunity” during which beneficial microbes help mature the immune system. By age three, children typically develop a more stable and diverse microbial community. Newborns acquire microbes from their immediate environment; vaginal delivery favors maternal vaginal microbes, while cesarean births favor microbes from...
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Development of the Oral Microbiota01:28

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The establishment of the oral microbiome begins before birth, challenging the long-held belief that the fetal oral cavity is sterile. The presence of oral microbes such as Streptococcus and Fusobacterium in amniotic fluid suggests that microbial exposure may occur in utero, potentially through translocation from the maternal oral or gastrointestinal tract. This early colonization primes the neonatal immune system and sets the stage for subsequent microbial succession. Maternal health,...
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Probiotics01:22

Probiotics

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Probiotics are live, non-pathogenic microorganisms that confer health benefits by modulating the gut microbiota. The human gastrointestinal tract harbors a complex microbial ecosystem, and the balance of this microbiota is crucial for digestive and systemic health. Among the most extensively studied and utilized probiotics are species formerly classified within the genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. These organisms not only naturally colonize the human gut but are also consumed through...
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Anatomy of the Intestines01:23

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Although digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids may begin in the stomach, it is completed in the intestine. The absorption of nutrients, water, and electrolytes from food and drink also occurs in the intestine. The intestines can be divided into two structurally distinct organs—the small and large intestines.
Small Intestines
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Introduction to the Human Microbiota01:22

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Microorganisms colonize various regions of the human body, including the mouth, nasal passages, throat, stomach, intestines, urogenital tract, and skin. The total number of microbial cells is estimated to range from 10¹³ to 10¹⁴—comparable to, or exceeding, the number of human somatic cells. This host–microbiome relationship has led to the conceptualization of humans as supraorganisms, wherein microbial communities perform vital roles in development, immunity,...
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Microbiota of the Large Intestine01:27

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The large intestine hosts the most densely populated microbial ecosystem in the human body. This complex community primarily consists of anaerobic bacteria, with Bacillota (formerly Firmicutes) and Bacteroidota (formerly Bacteroidetes) as the predominant groups. The distribution of these microbes varies along different sections of the large intestine, influenced by local environmental factors such as oxygen availability and nutrient composition.The cecum, located at the beginning of the large...
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Probiotics for extremely preterm infants: a Norwegian population-based study.

Nina Clare Hapnes1,2, Hans Jørgen Stensvold3, Ingvild Dalen4

  • 1Paediatric Department, Stavanger University Hospital, Stavanger, Norway.

Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition
|April 29, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Probiotic supplementation in extremely preterm/low birthweight infants lowered mortality rates. While not significantly reducing surgical necrotizing enterocolitis initially, higher probiotic use showed a potential benefit.

Keywords:
EpidemiologyGastroenterologyIntensive Care Units, NeonatalMortalitySepsis

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Area of Science:

  • Neonatal Medicine
  • Pediatric Gastroenterology
  • Clinical Pharmacy

Background:

  • Extremely preterm (EPT) and extremely low birthweight (ELBW) infants face high mortality and morbidity risks.
  • Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), sepsis, and growth issues are significant concerns in this vulnerable population.
  • Probiotic supplementation is explored as a potential intervention to improve outcomes.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate the impact of probiotic supplementation on mortality and morbidity in EPT/ELBW infants.
  • To compare outcomes between infants receiving and not receiving probiotics within the first week of life.

Main Methods:

  • A nationwide, population-based registry study conducted in all Norwegian neonatal intensive care units (NICUs).
  • Included EPT (<28 weeks) and ELBW (<1000 g) infants born between 2014-2021.
  • Utilized logistic regression, propensity score matching, and inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) for analysis, excluding infants with early mortality, NEC surgery, or delayed probiotic initiation.

Main Results:

  • Among 1268 infants analyzed, 53.5% received probiotics in the first week.
  • Probiotics were associated with significantly lower all-cause mortality (IPTW: aOR 0.65).
  • No reduction in surgical NEC was observed initially, but high probiotic use (>80%) showed a potential benefit in an emulated intention-to-treat analysis (aOR 0.40). No significant association with sepsis or growth was found.

Conclusions:

  • Probiotic supplementation in EPT/ELBW infants is linked to reduced all-cause mortality.
  • Probiotics may offer a potential benefit in reducing surgical NEC, particularly with higher usage rates.
  • Further research may clarify the optimal use of probiotics for NEC prevention in preterm infants.