Human disturbance, preys and refuge cover shape top predator movements in anthropogenic landscapes

Studies on wolf movement have focused on the effects of different isolated drivers, such as intrinsic traits or prey abundance, in wild settings. Consequently, a holistic understanding of how several factors jointly shape daily movement patterns, particularly in heavily anthropized landscapes, remains lacking. To examine the joint effect of intrinsic factors, food availability, human disturbance and refuge cover, we equipped 26 individuals with GPS-GSM collars in NW Iberia, one of the most anthropized areas of their range. We obtained 54,721 locations and 4,560 daily trajectories from positions taken every 2 h. We calculated 3 daily movement metrics: daily distance, net displacement, and straightness index. Using Bayesian regression models and variance partitioning, we assessed the relative contribution of intrinsic traits and external factors related to food availability, anthropogenic disturbance and refuge cover on wolf movement. Wolves traveled a mean daily distance of 9 km, with a mean net displacement of 3.8 km. Anthropogenic disturbance, particularly the interaction between human population and settlement density, was the main driver of movement reduction. Paved road density had a negative effect on movement, but this was mitigated by the extent and cohesion of refuge cover. Wolves feeding on livestock traveled shorter daily distances and net displacements compared with those feeding on wild ungulates. Our findings highlight the importance of the interplay between trophic resources, anthropogenic disturbance, and refuge availability in shaping daily wolf movements. In human-dominated landscapes, wolves shorten their movements to minimize exposure and mortality risk where close food and refuge are available.