Unpacking teacher collaboration: validation of measurement models using exploratory structural equation modeling

Teacher collaboration represents a key organizational feature of primary education, yet empirical research in the Nordic context has been limited by a lack of validated instruments capable of distinguishing between different forms of collaborative practice. This study develops and evaluates a set of measures designed to capture multiple dimensions of teacher collaboration in Norwegian primary schools. Scale development was informed by qualitative interviews with teachers from four schools spanning lower and upper primary grades. The instrument was administered to 490 teachers at Time 1 and 380 teachers at Time 2 across 38 schools. Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) was used to examine the dimensionality and coherence of the proposed measurement models. Results supported two multidimensional factor structures. Construct validity was supported by evidence of criterion-related validity, examined through associations with burnout, engagement, and school contextual variables. Longitudinal analyses assessed reliability, temporal stability, and measurement invariance across teacher subgroups and measurement occasions using current procedures for ordinal data. The findings indicate that the proposed measures demonstrate satisfactory psychometric properties and stable factor structures over time. The study provides researchers and educational practitioners with robust tools for the systematic investigation of teacher collaboration, its organizational conditions, and professional outcomes in primary education.