Debris-covered glacier identification in the Karakoram aided by thermal remote sensing

Glacier changes in the Karakoram Mountain (KM) region were analyzed using Landsat images from 2000 to 2021. Clean ice boundaries were mapped using supervised classification, while debris-covered ice was identified by integrating surface temperature, temperature vegetation dryness index (TVDI), and slope (ASTER DEM data). Extraction accuracy was 98% for clean ice and 67%-71% for debris-covered ice. In 2021, debris-covered ice represented about 5% of the total glacier area. Glacier area declined from 26.59 × 10³ km² (2000) to 20.66 × 10³ km² (2021), except for Amu Darya Basin (+1%). Tarim Basin and Indus Basin retreated by 14% and 25%, respectively. Rapid glacier loss in the Indus Basin may sharply decrease future river flow, underlining the need for accurate debris-covered glacier mapping for water resource assessment.