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Co-evolving biomaterials: Spatiotemporally programmable materials steering dynamic macrophage state transitions
Minhao Li1, Ziyi Feng2, Song Zeng1
1Department of Ultrasound, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, No. 36, Sanhao Street, Heping District, Shenyang City, Liaoning Province 110004, China.
Acta Biomaterialia
|May 1, 2026
Summary
This review introduces a stage-responsive framework for biomaterials that interact with macrophages, moving beyond static designs to achieve adaptive immune engineering for better tissue repair and disease treatment.
Area of Science:
- Biomaterials Science
- Immunology
- Tissue Engineering
Background:
- Macrophages are key immune cells integrating various cues for tissue repair.
- Current immunomodulatory biomaterials are often static or stimulus-responsive, lacking closed-loop control.
- Understanding macrophage-material interactions is crucial for advanced biomaterial design.
Purpose of the Study:
- To organize macrophage-material interactions within a stage-responsive framework.
- To link biological determinants of macrophage state transitions to biomaterial design dimensions.
- To classify current immunomodulatory strategies and identify future directions for adaptive biomaterials.
Main Methods:
- Review of existing literature on macrophage biology and biomaterial interactions.
- Development of a stage-responsive framework for biomaterial design.
- Classification of immunomodulatory strategies based on responsiveness and feedback mechanisms.
Main Results:
- A framework is proposed linking macrophage behavior drivers (immunometabolism, cell death, epigenetics) to biomaterial design (timing, spatial control, dose/sequence).
- Co-evolution describes the reciprocal, time-dependent interaction between biomaterials and macrophages.
- Current strategies are categorized as static, stimulus-responsive, or feedback-informed, highlighting limitations in adaptive control.
Conclusions:
- Future biomaterials should aim for genuinely feedback-controlled interactions with macrophages.
- Designing biomaterials that match macrophage transition kinetics is essential for effective immune engineering.
- This framework provides a basis for developing stage-aware biomaterials for improved tissue repair and disease management.
