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Related Concept Videos

The Parathyroid Glands00:59

The Parathyroid Glands

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The two pairs of parathyroid glands embedded within the posterior surface of the thyroid gland are restricted by a dense capsule around them. These glands comprise two distinct cell populations—parathyroid oxyphil and parathyroid principal cells- pivotal in calcium homeostasis.
Oxyphil cells, whose functions remain elusive, emerge during late puberty, adding a layer of complexity to the parathyroid gland's intricacies. In contrast, principal parathyroid cells undertake a vital role by...
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Adrenal Gland Disorders01:27

Adrenal Gland Disorders

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Adrenal gland disorders manifest when the production of adrenal hormones deviates from the norm, resulting in either excessive or insufficient concentrations.
Adrenal insufficiency, characterized by insufficient cortisol and aldosterone production, leads to conditions like Addison's disease. This disorder, affecting the adrenal cortex, exhibits symptoms such as skin bronzing, dehydration, low blood pressure, fatigue, and weight loss. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, a genetic ailment causing...
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Peripheral Nervous System: Ganglia and Nerves01:24

Peripheral Nervous System: Ganglia and Nerves

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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is a crucial component of the body's neural network, extending beyond the central nervous system (CNS) to bridge the gap between the CNS and the external environment. It encompasses nerves, ganglia, and sensory receptors.
Nerves
The nerve is a bundle of axons that serves as the communication highway in the PNS. Each nerve is ensheathed in a protective layer of connective tissue called the epineurium. This outermost layer safeguards the nerve and supports the...
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Sympathetic Pathways: Collateral Ganglia and Adrenal Medulla01:27

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The sympathetic pathways of the collateral ganglia and adrenal medulla serve unique but interconnected roles in the sympathetic response.
Collateral Ganglia
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The greater splanchnic nerve, formed by the...
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Sympathetic Signaling01:31

Sympathetic Signaling

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Sympathetic signaling, a vital part of the autonomic nervous system, plays a crucial role in mobilizing the body's resources in response to stress or emergencies. It involves the transmission of nerve impulses from sympathetic preganglionic fibers to postganglionic fibers. This results in the release of specific neurotransmitters and activation of adrenergic receptors.
Sympathetic preganglionic fibers release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) onto the ganglionic neurons in the...
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Transducer Mechanism: Enzyme-Linked Receptors01:27

Transducer Mechanism: Enzyme-Linked Receptors

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Enzyme-linked receptors are cell-surface receptors acting as an enzyme or associating with an enzyme intracellularly. They make excellent drug targets. Drugs can bind to the extracellular ligand-binding domain or directly affect their enzymatic domain and alter their activity.
Major types that are helpful drug targets include:
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 3, 2026

Endoscopic Endonasal Trans-sphenoidal Approach: Minimally Invasive Surgery for Pituitary Adenomas
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Pheochromocytomas and Paragangliomas.

Hussam Alkaissi1, David Taieb2, Hans K Ghayee3

  • 1National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.

Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America
|May 1, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGL) are rare tumors requiring genetic testing and specific diagnostic methods. Treatment involves surgery, with various options for metastatic disease.

Keywords:
CatecholaminesMetanephrinesParagangliomaPheochromocytomaPseudohypoxia

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Oncology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGL) are rare neuroendocrine tumors.
  • These tumors secrete catecholamines and are associated with over 20 driver mutations.
  • Genetic testing is crucial for all diagnosed PPGL patients.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To summarize diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for PPGL.
  • To highlight the importance of genetic testing in PPGL management.
  • To outline treatment options for both localized and metastatic PPGL.

Main Methods:

  • Diagnosis relies on plasma or urine metanephrine testing.
  • Tumor localization utilizes computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography scans.
  • Preoperative management involves alpha-blockers.

Main Results:

  • Surgical removal is the primary therapy for localized PPGL.
  • Metastatic PPGL management includes palliative surgery, chemotherapy, and radionuclide therapy.
  • Emerging treatments like HIF-2α inhibitors and clinical trial drugs offer new hope.

Conclusions:

  • Comprehensive diagnostic workup including genetic testing is essential for PPGL.
  • Multidisciplinary treatment approaches are necessary for optimal patient outcomes.
  • Advances in therapy provide expanding options for metastatic PPGL patients.