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Although digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids may begin in the stomach, it is completed in the intestine. The absorption of nutrients, water, and electrolytes from food and drink also occurs in the intestine. The intestines can be divided into two structurally distinct organs—the small and large intestines.
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The gut–brain axis is a bidirectional communication system that connects the gastrointestinal tract and the brain. This interaction is mediated through multiple pathways, including the vagus nerve, hormonal signals, immune responses, and chemical messengers produced by gut microbes.Microbial Contributions to Brain FunctionGut microbiota contributes significantly to brain function by producing neuroactive compounds. These include neuroactive compounds that influence neurotransmitters such...
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Development of the Oral Microbiota01:28

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The establishment of the oral microbiome begins before birth, challenging the long-held belief that the fetal oral cavity is sterile. The presence of oral microbes such as Streptococcus and Fusobacterium in amniotic fluid suggests that microbial exposure may occur in utero, potentially through translocation from the maternal oral or gastrointestinal tract. This early colonization primes the neonatal immune system and sets the stage for subsequent microbial succession. Maternal health,...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 5, 2026

Oral Gavage in Neonatal Mouse Pups and Functional Assessment of Gut Barrier Integrity Using Ussing Chambers
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The Gut in Early Life-Postnatal Challenges.

Marc Alexander Benninga1, Karl-Herbert Schäfer2, Hugues Piloquet3

  • 1Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

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Summary

Neonatal development involves significant physiological changes influenced by diet, environment, and genetics. Establishing a healthy gut microbiota is crucial for infant development, impacting metabolism, immunity, and the gut-brain axis.

Keywords:
disorders of gut–brain interactionearly lifegastrointestinal tractgut microbiotagut–brain axishealthy developmenthuman milkprebioticsprobiotic

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Area of Science:

  • Neonatal development and microbiome research.
  • Gut-brain axis.
  • Microbiome modulation.

Background:

  • Neonatal development is characterized by rapid physiological changes.
  • The gut microbiota plays a critical role in nutrient metabolism, immune function, growth, and the gut-brain axis.
  • Early life is a critical window for establishing a healthy infant microbiome.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review challenges in defining a "normal" neonatal microbiota.
  • To discuss modifiable external factors influencing early-life microbiome development.
  • To explore new approaches for targeted microbiome modulation in infants.

Main Methods:

  • Review of current research on neonatal development and microbiome.
  • Analysis of factors influencing gut microbiota establishment.
  • Discussion of advancements in sequencing technologies for microbiome characterization.

Main Results:

  • A healthy, symbiotic gut microbiota is essential for normal infant development.
  • Term-born, exclusively breastfed infants not exposed to antibiotics serve as a "gold standard" for microbiota development.
  • Advances in sequencing enable strain-level identification and personalized microbiome modulation strategies.

Conclusions:

  • Defining a "normal" neonatal microbiota remains challenging.
  • External factors, including diet and antibiotic exposure, significantly impact early-life microbiome development.
  • Targeted microbiome modulation holds promise for supporting healthy infant development, including for formula-fed infants.