Differential profiles of reading development in neurodevelopmental disorders under an adapted tier 2 response to...

Reading proficiency is a foundational skill. Failure to achieve reading competence constitutes a global educational and public health challenge. This burden is especially high among children with neurodevelopmental conditions. Despite the availability of evidence-based frameworks, such as Response to Intervention (RTI), a lack of scalable, context-sensitive models remains for supporting struggling readers in low-resource environments. Building on this context, this study describes the Less Intensive Response to Intervention Tier 2 (LIRTI²). We hypothesize that the LIRTI² will improve reading speed and comprehension in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Borderline Intellectual Functioning (BIF), and those at risk for Dyslexia (arDYS). We also predict differential effectiveness of the intervention across neurodevelopmental profiles.

This retrospective, service-based study included 90 children (median age = 9 years, 3rd grade). Participants (ADHD = 37, BIF = 14, and arDYS = 39) completed 18 weekly, two-hour sessions per week that combined explicit phonological awareness and fluency-focused instruction with playful, low-cost materials. For the intervention, students were divided into small groups based on reading proficiency. Reading speed (words per minute) and reading comprehension (literal questions) were assessed before and after the intervention. The groups were similar in age, school grade, and sex distribution.

A significant diagnostic effect was found on post-intervention reading speed, after adjusting for baseline reading speed and schooling [ANCOVA F(2,85) = 4.345, p > 0.01]. The ADHD group demonstrated significantly higher reading speed than BIF (p = 0.034) and arDYS (p = 0.047), whereas the BIF-arDYS comparison was not significant. While clinical group was not associated with reading comprehension level (low, medium, high) before LIRTI², this association became significant after the intervention [χ ²(4, N = 90) = 14.75, p = 0.005]. Adjusted standardized residuals indicated that more children with ADHD achieved "high" comprehension levels.

LIRTI² is an out-of-school, small-group intervention with potential scalability in low-resource settings where access to services is limited. Reading fluency and comprehension improved following the intervention, with larger gains in children with ADHD than in those with BIF or arDYS. Future studies with follow-up are needed to confirm which learner profiles benefit most and to determine the intervention's broader academic impact.